SOUTH ASIA: A CALL FOR CLIMATE RESILIENT CITY INFRASTRUCTURES

BEATING THE CLIMATE CHANGE

Across Nepal, the multifaceted impacts of climate change—ranging from rising temperatures and altered rainfall patterns to more frequent and intense extreme weather events, such as floods and landslides, compounded by the accelerated melting of glaciers and snow-capped mountains—are significantly affecting social, economic, and developmental infrastructure. Ensuring the climate resilience of such infrastructure is critical for safeguarding lives and livelihoods, mitigating direct economic losses from extreme weather events, and achieving both national development aspirations and international climate commitments, particularly those outlined in the Paris Agreement. This legally binding treaty, adopted by 196 parties at the UN Climate Change Conference (COP21) in 2015, underscores the global commitment to limit climate change and its effects.

Despite the government’s collaboration with multiple partners and its climate adaptation strategies, efforts to ensure climate-proof city and rural infrastructure remain insufficient. Current measures, which include flood protection, landslide mitigation, and the establishment of early warning systems, have not adequately protected lives and property, demonstrating the critical gap between political rhetoric and actionable resilience planning. In practice, government initiatives are often reduced to mere slogans rather than the substantive implementation of robust climate resilience policies.

This gap in preparedness became starkly evident following the unprecedented rainfall on September 27-28, 2024, which wreaked havoc across Nepal. Key infrastructure, including highways, feeder roads, settlements, schools, hospitals, electricity grids, powerhouses, water supply systems, and sewerage networks, suffered extensive damage from floods and landslides. In Kathmandu Valley, the capital city town, alone, at least 32 people have lost their lives, with 12 still missing, according to senior police official Bishwo Adhikari. Rescue operations successfully saved 1,053 individuals trapped by floodwaters, but the destruction has been severe, with four concrete houses destroyed and 1,244 homes submerged. The full extent of human casualties and property losses is yet to be determined, as many vehicles remain unaccounted for, and travelers are stranded on blocked roads. The broader national context is similarly dire. Police reports indicate that 44 districts have been affected, with 39 districts facing complete road blockages due to landslides, inundation, and erosion. In Jhyaple Khola, a key entry point to Kathmandu, a landslide claimed the lives of at least 30 individuals, burying vehicles in debris. Despite the valiant efforts of security forces, the scale of the disaster has exposed systemic weaknesses in disaster preparedness and response. Similarly, other South Asian countries have also been experiencing similar kinds of disasters, and single efforts for rescue, recovery, and rebuilding are insufficient.  Collaborative and partnership cooperation is vital to minimize casualties and losses.

In this context, the government’s role is paramount. Only the state possesses the authority and capacity to mobilize resources, enforce regulations, and coordinate public services to protect society from such disasters. When governmental mechanisms falter, the effects on communities and resources are devastating, particularly in terms of their inability to withstand shocks and casualties. The traditional, reactive approach to governance is no longer viable in the era of climate change, given the increasing unpredictability of weather patterns and events. However, technological advances now offer tools to predict climate behavior, which should be integrated into governmental planning and operations to reduce casualties and enhance the efficacy of rescue efforts. A key priority for the government should be the incorporation of climate risk assessments into infrastructure planning processes.

To achieve this, federal and subnational governments must adopt place-based approaches that consider local characteristics and integrate climate resilience into infrastructure development. Multi-level governance frameworks should be established to align climate actions across all levels of government, enabling a coordinated response to climate risks. Federal authorities must also strengthen the capacity of local governments, ensuring they have the financial and technical resources necessary to implement climate-resilient infrastructure projects.

Climate-resilient infrastructure refers to assets designed, constructed, and operated to anticipate, adapt to, and withstand the impacts of climate change throughout their lifespan. This applies not only to new infrastructure but also to the retrofitting of existing assets. To ensure resilience, it is crucial to integrate climate risk assessments into every stage of infrastructure development—from planning and design to construction and operation. A range of tools and methodologies is available to facilitate the incorporation of climate resilience into infrastructure life cycles. Before initiating specific policies or projects, governments at all levels should develop comprehensive climate-resilient development plans, including spatial and master plans. These plans should strategically define where and what can be built, ensuring that climate risks are thoroughly considered within the broader context of infrastructure development. Effective spatial planning requires close coordination between central and local governments, particularly given the central government’s competencies in this area.

At the project level, Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) should be mandated for large-scale developments with a specific focus on climate change adaptation and resilience. EIAs should not only assess the environmental impacts of a project but also evaluate its vulnerability to climate risks and its potential to exacerbate climate change impacts elsewhere. Expert-led assessments should guide decision-making and investment plans, ensuring that infrastructure is built to withstand the challenges posed by a changing climate. Through such structured and expert-driven approaches, governments can better protect their citizens and infrastructures from the devastating effects of climate change, ensuring that resilience is embedded in every aspect of national development policies, and plans.

South Asia

South Asia, home to approximately 1.94 billion people (Table 1), stands as one of the regions most vulnerable to climate-related shocks. The region is confronting a "new climate normal," characterized by increasingly frequent and severe heatwaves and cold waves, cyclones, droughts, glacial melt, landslides, and floods. These escalating climate events are pushing governments, businesses, and citizens to their limits in terms of adaptation capacity. Over the past two decades, nearly 750 million individuals across the eight South Asian nations—Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka—have experienced one or more climate-induced disasters each year.

This changing climate threatens to drastically degrade living conditions for up to 800 million people in a region already home to some of the world's most impoverished and vulnerable populations. In response to these pressing challenges, South Asia must prioritize building climate resilience across critical sectors, including agriculture, food, water, and land systems; energy and transportation infrastructure; health; housing; and urban livability. These transitions are essential to safeguard lives, livelihoods, and infrastructure from the devastating impacts of climate change.

A coordinated regional response is imperative, and the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) could serve as a crucial platform for addressing climate change. SAARC’s specialized divisions on environment, natural disasters, and biotechnology should be strengthened to facilitate proactive cooperation on climate resilience. Although each South Asian country faces unique climate-induced disasters shaped by its geography and socio-economic conditions, the human toll is similar, with those living in resource-constrained settings bearing the brunt of climate impacts.

In this context, a united approach under the SAARC umbrella is essential to combat the shared threat of climate change. Through enhanced collaboration, SAARC could spearhead the development of a dedicated wing focused on mitigating climate-induced disasters. This body could support the formulation of robust, climate-resilient policies, facilitate cooperation across member states, and foster the exchange of knowledge and best practices. Such an initiative would provide strategic direction for the development of climate-resilient infrastructure across the region, ensuring that South Asia is better equipped to face the escalating challenges posed by a warming planet.

Regardless of their size, wealth, or geopolitical standing, the people of South Asian nations share remarkably similar experiences in terms of their daily lives, emotional bonds, and vulnerabilities. These populations, whether from large or small countries, rich or poor, are united by common cultural sentiments, social challenges, and exposure to the impacts of climate change. This collective experience provides a strong foundation for regional collaboration on climate-related issues, which could catalyze deeper cooperation and mutual understanding across national boundaries.

Collaborative efforts to address climate change among South Asian countries present a unique opportunity to foster regional integration, not only at the governmental level but also by cultivating stronger people-to-people connections. By working together to mitigate climate risks, these nations can build trust and solidarity, bridging gaps in socio-economic disparities. Moreover, such cooperation offers the potential to unlock shared opportunities, as these countries possess common socio-economic conditions, which could be leveraged to collectively improve resilience and sustainable development outcomes.

Promoting regional partnerships in tackling climate change would not only enhance adaptive capacities but also contribute to strengthening the social fabric of South Asia, creating a model of cooperation that transcends traditional political and economic divisions. This approach has the potential to establish a new paradigm of shared responsibility,  lessening political issues among South Asian countries where the benefits of climate action and sustainable development are equitably distributed across the region.

The annual GDP of South Asian countries (as shown in Table 1) reflects promising economic prospects, suggesting considerable opportunities for growth. The region benefits from a large and abundant working-age population and vast untapped natural resources. However, to fully harness this potential, there is an urgent need to develop a highly skilled and technically proficient workforce, which would serve as a crucial driver of further economic development.

Maximizing these opportunities will require coordinated and collective efforts among South Asian nations. By fostering collaboration, countries in the region can better leverage their economic advantages, expand trade, and enhance access to new markets, technologies, and expertise. Such efforts would stimulate not only national but also regional growth, creating a more interconnected and competitive South Asia on the global stage. Importantly, this is an era of cooperation, where collaboration, rather than the pursuit of unilateral dominance or hegemony, should define international relations or UN protocols. Working together toward shared goals will enable South Asian countries to capitalize on their collective strengths, driving sustainable economic development while fostering regional stability and prosperity.

GOVERNMENT ROLE

The government of any country remains the most powerful institution capable of seamlessly investing in, mobilizing, and enforcing the provision of public goods and services necessary to protect people and societies from the impacts of climate-related disasters. When government mechanisms fail or function inadequately, the consequences for communities and resources are severe. Vulnerable populations and critical infrastructure are left without the capacity to absorb shocks or mitigate casualties resulting from natural disasters. Therefore, the government's primary responsibility is to act decisively in safeguarding its citizens and societal systems. In the context of climate change, traditional approaches to governance are no longer viable. The unpredictable nature of the climate demands a shift away from "business-as-usual" practices. However, advances in technology now offer governments powerful tools to detect and predict climate-related patterns and behaviors or signals. By deploying these technologies, governments can receive early warning signals, allowing for the timely mobilization of resources and enhanced readiness to prevent casualties and streamline rescue operations.

A critical component of government action must involve the integration of climate resilience into infrastructure planning. Federal and subnational governments should adopt a place-based approach, recognizing that local contexts and characteristics must be embedded in policy development to effectively build climate resilience. Multi-level governance is essential to aligning climate resilience actions across different tiers of government, fostering coherence between national and subnational initiatives.

Moreover, federal governments have a pivotal role in strengthening the capacity of subnational entities, particularly in terms of financial and technical resources. Empowering subnational governments with the necessary funding, resources, and expertise is crucial to ensuring that they can implement climate-resilient infrastructure projects and efficient rescue operations if happen. By reinforcing these capabilities, governments can help cities and subnational governments mobilize the required resources to address the challenges posed by climate change, ultimately enhancing the resilience of both the built environment and the communities that depend on it.

CLIMATE RESILIENT INFRASTRUCTURES

Climate-resilient infrastructure refers to infrastructure that is intentionally planned, designed, constructed, and operated to anticipate, prepare for, and adapt to the evolving challenges of climate change. Such infrastructure must be capable of withstanding and recovering swiftly from the disruptions caused by climate-related events throughout its entire lifecycle. This concept applies not only to new infrastructure but also to existing assets, which may require retrofitting or operational adjustments to accommodate the growing impacts of climate variability.

A critical aspect of developing climate-resilient infrastructure involves the comprehensive mapping and assessment of climate risks during the design phase. Integrating these risk assessments into planning and decision-making processes ensures that climate resilience is embedded across the infrastructure’s entire lifecycle—from the initial stages of design and construction to its long-term operation and maintenance. Moreover, adequate capacity-building for stakeholders, including builders and financiers, is essential to effectively address climate risks at every stage.

Several engineering tools, principles, and frameworks exist to facilitate the mainstreaming of climate resilience into infrastructure development. Before embarking on specific policies, programs, or projects, governments—at the national, subnational, and municipal levels—can formulate climate-resilient development plans. These plans, which may include spatial and master planning, strategically define where and what types of infrastructure can be built. By incorporating climate risk assessments, these plans ensure that potential hazards are considered as part of the broader built environment. Furthermore, they allow for the understanding of interactions between infrastructure and non-infrastructure assets, enhancing overall resilience.

Coordination across various levels of government is crucial for effective spatial planning, as central governments often hold key competencies in this domain. At the project appraisal stage, governments can enforce the use of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs/IEEs), which evaluate not only the broader environmental impacts of a project but also its potential to exacerbate climate risks elsewhere, as well as its vulnerability to future climate changes. For large-scale projects, strict and mandatory EIAs should be conducted, with a specific emphasis on climate change adaptation and resilience during the screening, scoping, and assessment phases. These assessments should be carried out by experts with the requisite skills and technical expertise, ensuring the reliability and comprehensiveness of the evaluations. The findings of these assessments should then guide the decision-making process, informing investment plans that prioritize climate resilience. By adopting such robust, expert-led approaches, governments can execute projects that are not only sustainable but also resilient to the increasingly unpredictable nature of climate change, thereby safeguarding both infrastructure and communities for the long term.

DISASTER PLANNING

Disasters manifest in various forms, each presenting distinct challenges to human society. Human-made disasters often stem from irrational actions or negligence, leading to industrial accidents, infrastructural collapses, or structural failures. These are preventable, arising from poor planning, oversight, or disregard for safety regulations. In contrast, natural disasters are triggered by physical phenomena such as earthquakes, landslides, floods, and droughts, which are beyond human control yet profoundly disruptive. The classification of disasters is inherently complex and may include pandemics, armed conflicts, fires, and failures of critical infrastructure such as dams, bridges, roads, buildings, or reservoirs.

Regardless of their origin, disasters have far-reaching consequences that ripple through entire societies, inflicting significant damage on people, property, and economies. They often strain the capacities of nations, institutions, communities, and people to respond effectively, exposing weaknesses in preparedness and resilience.

Disaster planning is a critical, multifaceted process designed to anticipate and mitigate the effects of disasters. It encompasses the strategic allocation and mobilization of resources to minimize harm and manage the four pillars of disaster management: prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery. Successful planning requires a systematic approach to understanding the nature and scope of potential threats and the roles and responsibilities involved in addressing them.

Frequently, poor infrastructure—such as inadequately maintained riverbanks, dams, bridges, and roads—exacerbates the impact of disasters. A prime example is the catastrophic consequences of heavy rainfall overwhelming under-maintained systems, leading to flooding and loss of life and property. Governments and organizations must focus on addressing vulnerabilities, such as unregulated urban sprawl in flood-prone areas like rivers, and waterways, to prevent or mitigate disaster outcomes.

Effective disaster planning requires a thorough examination of causal factors, alongside a rigorous assessment of a society’s capacity to endure such events. Vulnerability is often unevenly distributed, with marginalized populations, particularly those living in resource limitations, bearing the brunt of disaster impacts due to their limited capacity for preparation and recovery. For example, impoverished communities situated near rivers or waterways are more susceptible to flood damage, as they typically lack the means to fortify their homes or relocate to safer areas.

Disaster planning also involves analyzing the degree of exposure to potential losses. Structures located in high-risk areas—such as homes built near water bodies or on unstable slopes—are inherently more vulnerable to floods or landslides, especially during extreme weather events. Thus, effective disaster risk management must integrate a comprehensive understanding of geographical and societal risk factors, fostering resilience through proactive planning and equitable resource allocation.

SCOPE OF DISASTER PLANNING

To be fully aware of the scope of disaster planning, it is essential to understand its key components: prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery, alongside the strategic mapping of potential risk zones. Each element plays a crucial role in shaping comprehensive disaster planning and management strategies that safeguard lives, communities, and economies.

Prevention

Mitigation and prevention efforts are targeted to reduce the potential damage, casualties, and suffering caused by disasters. While no amount of planning can completely avert natural disasters, proactive measures can significantly prevent their effects from escalating due to neglected causal factors and manageable risks. Mitigation specifically refers to actions taken to lessen the severity of a disaster's impact. By investing in strategies that minimize hazards, societies can dramatically decrease the burden that disasters impose on people and infrastructure. Disaster planning professionals deploy various strategies to protect vulnerable populations and limit hazards. These include:

• Educating the public about potential risks and how to effectively address them,
• Raising awareness of proper disaster preparedness across different disaster types, and
• Installing and enhancing prediction and early warning technologies.

Risk management in disaster planning focuses on reducing a community’s vulnerability to disasters. Key actions involved in this discipline are:

• Encouraging people or society to purchase appropriate cushions or safety net measures like insurance to protect property and personal assets,
• Educating families and businesses on developing effective disaster preparedness plans,
• Promoting the use of fire-resistant materials in construction,
• Advocating for infrastructure initiatives like the construction and maintenance of river banks, fire systems, clear waterways, etc., and
• Building collaborative partnerships between federal,  provincial, and local government including private agencies to work on mitigation measures.

Land Use and Building Codes

Mitigation also involves strategic land-use planning and the enforcement of building codes. Constructing schools, hospitals, and residential areas in flood-prone zones heightens exposure to disasters. Disaster management highlights these risks, offering alternative land-use strategies. For instance, rather than building homes in floodplains, or waterways, community planners can designate these areas for recreational purposes, wildlife habitats, or hiking trails. Additionally, communities can implement seasonal restrictions, advising people to avoid high-risk areas during rainy or drought season, thus minimizing the vulnerability of residents and their properties. Effective mitigation efforts also address the following:

·         Engineering bridges and buildings to withstand earthquakes, and

·         Enforcing building codes designed to protect structures from natural disaster damage.

Critical Infrastructure Protection

Safeguarding critical infrastructure during a disaster can be the difference between life and death. Critical infrastructure—systems and assets vital to a community’s economy, security, and public health—demands special attention in mitigation efforts. For instance, protecting water treatment systems, wastewater facilities, and health facilities, warehouses of essential supplies, financial institutions, from damage can prevent catastrophic consequences. The 2015 earthquake in Nepal offers a poignant example. The inundation from the earthquake disabled the power supply system, transportation, and health facilities triggering one of the most severe accidents. This event underscores the importance of protecting critical infrastructure from potential disasters or hazards.

Preparedness

Disaster preparedness requires meticulous and well-coordinated planning. This ensures that response efforts are swift, effective, and free of duplication. Preparedness plans are designed to:

• Identify and allocate organizational resources,
• Assign roles and responsibilities,
• Develop operational procedures and policies, and
• Organize activities to enhance disaster readiness.

Anticipating the needs of disaster-affected communities and the economy enhances the quality of the response. Building the capacity of volunteers, personnel, and disaster management teams ensures a more effective, streamlined response. Key components of preparedness plans include:

• Identifying emergency shelter locations,
• Designing evacuation routes, and
• Securing emergency energy, food, health services, and water sources including transportation.

Preparedness also encompasses:

• Establishing chains of command,
• Developing training programs.
• Implementing communication protocols,
• Ensuring the distribution of emergency supplies, and
• Identifying stockpile requirements.

Contingency Planning is a crucial aspect of disaster readiness. It involves making advance decisions regarding the allocation of human, technology, and financial resources, coordinating procedures among agencies, and organizing logistics. Contingency plans typically address three fundamental questions:

• What is the likely scenario?
• How will the response unfold? and
• What preemptive actions can be taken to prepare?

Response and Recovery

During and immediately following a disaster, the primary focus of disaster management shifts to delivering urgent services aimed at saving lives, protecting health, and safeguarding property, critical infrastructures, animals, and community assets. Once the immediate response is underway, the focus gradually transitions to helping communities rebuild—economically, emotionally, and physically.

Disaster Relief addresses the immediate, short-term needs of communities affected by disasters. This includes evacuations, search and rescue operations, and emergency medical assistance. Key examples of disaster relief efforts include:

• Establishing temporary shelters that provide safe sleeping areas, food, and emotional support,
• Delivering essential supplies such as food, water, toiletries, special care for women having baby and pregnancy and cleanup materials, and
• Providing emergency healthcare services, such as first aid and prescription medication replacement.

Rebuilding is a long-term process aimed at restoring housing, economies, infrastructure, and community health. Federal agencies, in collaboration with local organizations, play a key role in helping communities find resources and solutions to redevelop and revitalize after a disaster. Recovery assistance may involve:

• Unemployment benefits,
• Housing assistance,
• Legal services and financial services
• Mental health counseling,  education to children, and
• Disaster case management.

COORDINATION AND COMMUNICATION

Effective coordination across institutions is paramount in minimizing casualties and ensuring the efficient utilization of resources during disaster response. Well-structured communication and information-sharing protocols are essential to enhancing disaster response capabilities. By fostering robust coordination between government agencies, emergency responders, and local communities, a society can rapidly build capacity, develop strong coping strategies, and ultimately reduce the human and material toll of disasters.

Poor coordination, on the other hand, can lead to significant loss of life and property. To prevent such outcomes, disaster management agencies should establish dedicated operational units that maintain constant vigilance, ensuring timely responses to emerging threats. A well-coordinated disaster management system is critical to mitigating the devastating impact of disasters and fostering resilience within vulnerable populations.

WAY FORWARD

Climate change is an undeniable reality of human life, no one knows when it could happen with any form of climate disaster, yet its impacts can be significantly mitigated through coordinated, collaborative efforts. To achieve this, it is essential to establish a distinct planning framework to be supported by dedicated professionals, resources, advanced technologies, and gears. Infrastructure development regardless of its nature, must undergo thorough assessments to account for climate-related risks and other potential hazards such as natural disasters, fires, and pandemics.

Governments, as the most powerful entities within their jurisdictions, have the unique authority to enforce regulations and mobilize resources across a broad spectrum. They must adopt a proactive stance to safeguard their populations, societies, and economies. This requires the strategic and timely use of governmental powers and resources to ensure public safety and protect societies and economies from both immediate and long-term threats of climate change or any form of disaster. Those in leadership and executive positions bear a critical responsibility to act with agility and foresight, efficiently mobilizing resources and systems to minimize casualties and damage in the face of disasters.

In this context, the construction of climate-resilient infrastructure—whether at the household, business, or governmental level—must become an uncompromising priority. Strict adherence to building codes and resilience standards is non-negotiable, and violators must be held accountable through legal channels. By enforcing these norms and ensuring compliance, the severity of damages and casualties resulting from climate-related events or natural disasters can be substantially reduced. Ultimately, a proactive, coordinated approach that integrates climate resilience into all facets of infrastructure development and policy enforcement is essential for minimizing the adverse impacts of climate change on society and economies.

About Authors

This knowledge management document has been prepared by Kalyan R. Sharma; General Secretary of the Nepal-China Friendship Forum, Kathmandu, Nepal. Laxman Neupane is affiliated with Baya Himalaya, a research, development studies, and advisory institution in Kathmandu, Nepal. The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest concerning the content or findings presented in this paper. Expression opinions in the paper are individual one, not represent any of the institutions that authors are affiliated.

Download Special Article As PDF/userfiles/EP_22_10_Special Article.pdf